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Sunday, May 12, 2013

Outline of Industrial and Organizational Psychology


Industrial and Organizational Psychology
  • I/O psyc: Scientific study of the workplace
  • What are I/O psychologists: scientists who derive principles of individualidual, group and org. behavior through research (2) consultants (3) teachers
  • Emphasizes the benefit of both the organization (profit, efficiency) and the individualidual
  • Scientist-practitioner model which means that validated practices are used for applications at work (scientist-practitioner gap: a serious disconnect b/t the K that academics are producing the K that practitioners are consuming)
  • Why does the gap exist? Journals are not accessible to everyone and/or feasible sources of info (time, $, etc.), usually working in a framework that ALREADY exists, culture & climate issues, scientists aren't studying what people are interested in applying
  • Industrial Psyc: tended to emphasize benefits to the organization, tends to have more of a quantitative psyc, topics often subject to Equal Employment Opportunity Law
  • Org Psyc: tended to emphasize benefits to the individual, tends to have more of a qualitative focus, topics are often considered at both the micro (person) and macro (system)
  • I/O changes: human factor has dropped off, as has leadership
  • 2 top journals: journal of applied psychology, ppsyc
  • Most popular in 2000s: work groups, work behavior, work attitudes, performance appraisal, test validation and psychometrics
  • research doesn't reflect important trends in the real world: health care demands, outsourcing compensation/benefits, work-life balance, globalization, aging workforce

Trends
  • (1) globalization:multinational Corp., (2) Outsourcing: more consulting groups, (3) Automazation of jobs, (4) Increased workplace diversity, (5) Employment law will expand, (6) changing boundaries of a typical job, (7) restructuring with a “flatter” organization

Training and Theories
  • Training/employee development can have positive effects via: (1) Learning (2) Social Exchange Theory (can show employees they are valued) (3) Symbolic value (eg investment), (4) reduction in liability (eg safety training)
  • Employee development: formal programs for orgs to help employees learn
  • Training: Systematic acquisition of skills, concepts, or attitudes resulting in improved performance in another env.
  • KSAOs
  • 3 broad categories of learning categories: (1) Cognitive outcomes, (2) Skill-based outcomes, (3) Affective outcomes
  • Psyc Learning theories that have influenced training: operant conditioning, classical conditioning (learning things are paired together), social learning theory (modeling- guided learning), adult learning theory (adults want to be more hands on and practice)
  • Reinforcement Theory (based on operant conditioning): learning results from association b/t behaviors and rewards; positive sr; OBM: simple recognition and feedback can be effective in increasing performance
  • Steps in Social Modeling Theory (based on Social learning): Basic principles (1) present relevant info and content to be learned (2) Demonstrate KSAOs to be learned, (3) create opportunities for employees to practice (4) provide feedback to trainees and provide support
  • 3 step needs assessment process: (1) organizational analysis (2) task analysis (3) person analysis- this process in similar to a strategic management approach to training
  • Determining the appropriateness of training given the orgs strategic goals. Must consider leagal and technological environments.
  • Transfer to training climate the extent to which the workplace facilitates using training on the job
  • Task analysis: involves the identification of the task performed by trainees and KSAOs needed to perform effectively. Type of job analysis using typical methods for gathering data. 2 techniques (1) Cognitive task analysis: examining the mental processes of K needed, (2) team task analysis: including the coordination req when teamwork is involved
  • Person analysis: involves determining whether training is needed, who needs training and whether trainees are ready. Human Performance improvement- what are the perceived ox or K gap/. May be done via formal investigation
  • The individual outcomes of training should guide the training design and evaluation criteria
  • 3 components to a training objective: (1) the desired behavior itself, (2) the conditions under which the behavior will occur (tools, environment, etc), (3) the standards or level of performance
  • Training design: the process of planning events to facilitate learning (1) pre training interventions: communication, goal orientatiions, metacog strategies, objectives, (2) choosing instructional methods- multiple methods better, (3) enhancing learning principles
  • Instructional methods: off site media: lecture based or video based training, discussion, problem based learning or case studies, computer based training, a simulator can be on site or off site.
  • On the job training (1)(behavior modeling): trainees observe and learn from more experienced employees. (2)Apprenticeship. (3)Error management training: encouraging trainees to explore and learn via error. (4)Job rotation: employees move to various jobs, departments, or areas of company
  • Learning principles: (1) active practice (adult learning theory): actively participating in training/work tasks (2) Automaticity: when tasks can be preformed with little attention (3) occurs after acquisition of mastery
  • Extent to which the task trained is similar to that req by job. Physical fidelity: near transfer: extent to which training tasks mirrors physical features of task performed on job (2) physical fidelity (far transfer): extent to which training task helps trainees develop KSAOs necessary to perform job (as in an appropriate mental model)
  • After training: (1) support: supervisor follow up (2) goal setting w/ feedback= trainees set transfer goals and report back on them either to supervisors or peers (3) relapse prevention: originated from addiction mgmt.; also used in safety training to identify trigger and cues
  • Individualidual difference treatment interactions: (1) cognitive ability: higher ability trainees benefit from unstructured environments (2) Self efficacy: goal setting during training was helpful for those with high self efficacy but detrimental for those with low self efficacy (3) demographics: research has found a neg rel b/t age and learning outcomes following training
  • Training eval: (1) reaction criteria: did the trainee like it? (survey)(2) Learning criteria (test): did the trainee learn the K? (3) Behavior criteria (simulation or job observ.) are trainees doing it? (4) Result criteria (bottom line measure): were org outcomes affected? (5) return on investment (costs vs benefits)
  • Calculates training programs based on costs: # individual trained, $ per individual, $ lost from time away from work & Benefits: diff in job performance b/t trained and untrained employees.
  • The strongest training eval designs include: random assignment of participants to conditions, ctrl group, measures obtained before and after training
  • Pretest posttest ctrl group design is best if you can manage it
  • The learning org: companies that build a culture around continuous learning, K sharing, and personal mastery
  • Additional features: (1) emphasize problem solving and innovation (2) develop systems that enhance K sharing (3) encourage flexibility & experimentation, (4) Value well being & development (5) encourage employees to find or make opportunities
  • Vroom’s Expectancy theory: motivation to do something will be a function the strength of expectations and desirability of rewards. From a compensation perspective, this suggests it is essential to find out what employees want: (1) expectancy of performance success, (2) instrumentality of success in getting reward (3) valuation of the reward as determined by the employee
  • Adam’s equity theory: money implies something about justice (fairness). Employees compare what they are getting form the org to what they are giving to the org relevant to others. When ratios are equal= fair situation. Under-rewarded states cause anger, over-rewarded status cause guilt- can be rationalized away. Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into equity.
  • Deci’s Cognitive Evaluation Theory and Self Determination Theory: people prefer to believe they have control over their actions. Anything that makes a person feel controlled by others will undermine motivation. Intrinsic motivation = a dfrive to do an activity for the activity itself and or pleasure in doing so. Extrinsic motivation = a drive to do an activity for tangible rewards associated with doing it. Verbal recognition can increase intrinsic motivation if not overly-focused on outcomes. Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent.

Pay/Salary
  • 4 major symbolic meanings of money: (1) achievement and recognition, (2) status and respect, (3) freedom and control, (4) power
  • Pay satisfaction is significantly correlated with a variety of outcomes such as: turnover, absenteeism, organizational citizenship behavior, union organization. Pay satisfaction questionnaire: (1) pay level, (2) pay raises, (3) benefits, (4) administration. Benefits survey: (1) benefit level satisfaction (coverage, payments), (2) benefits system satisfaction (communication, ease of use)
  • Compensation satisfaction varies as a function of: (1) culture, (2) generational cohort, (3) Gender
  • What should orgs consider: Schneider’s Attraction-selection-attrition model: consider who you are trying to recruit and develop an appropriate compensation model. Schuler (1986) 9 strategic choices: (1) base salaries (2) Equity (3) perks (4) packages (5) employee participation (6) performance incentives (7) incentive time frame (8) job security, (9) admin

Job-Related Attitudes

  • Attitudes: reflect how one feels about something; evaluations: either favorable or unfavorable-concerning objects, people or events (1) job satisfaction: an attitude resulting from appraisal of ones job- not currently focused on as much
  • 3 components of an attitude: (1) cognitive- opinion or belief segment of an attitude (bulk of past research), (2) Affective- the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude, (3) behavioral- an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something
  • Linking behavior and attitudes: internal consistency; Cognitive dissonance (Festinger): an incompatibility between two or more attitudes or b/t behavior and attitudes; individualiduals want to reduce dissonance to reach internal stability
  • Consistency can be achieved by: (1) changing the attitude, (2) changing the behavior, (3) rationalizing it away
  • Important attitudes do have a strong relationship to behavior- moderators in the relationship: (1) personal experience, (2) important to self-concept, (3) social pressures
  • Measurement of job satisfaction: job satisfaction is typically measured with a self-report questionnaire; job-descriptive index (JDI): assesses satisfaction with 5 facets of work (1) work itself (2) supervision (3) people (4) pay (5) promotion; Job in general (JIG): assesses a single overall rating; Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (MSQ): calculates both extrinsic and intrinsic satisfaction scores
  • Outcomes/correlates of job satisfaction (typically about r= .25): job performance: there is a pos rel although causality may run both was (2) workplace deviance: theft, substance abuse (3) org citizenship behavior: satisfaction influences OCB through perceptions of fairness (4) customer satisfaction: satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty (5) withdrawal behaviors (ie absenteeism): satisfied employees are less likely to miss work
  • Employee responses to dissatisfaction: (1) active (voice- active and constructive attempts to improve conditions; exit- behavior directed toward leaving the org) (2) constructive (3) passive (loyalty- passively waiting for conditions to improve) (4) destructive (neglect- allowing conditions to worsen)
  • Theoretical approaches to studying job satisfaction: (1) Situational theories: environment (a) social information processing: people rely on social cues to form their job satisfaction (b) the job characteristics model: 5 core job dimensions= feedback, autonomy, skill variety, task identity, task significance (2) dispositional theories: individualidual/genetic make-up (a) indirect studies: test-restest reliability in job satisfaction genetic studies (b) direct studies: relating traits to job satisfy.: pos/neg affectivity, core self evaluations (self-esteem, self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability)(3) interactive theories: the interaction b/t the individualidual and the situation (a) value-percept theory (Locke): we should look at unfulfilled values, dis-satisfaction= discrepancy between what you want and what you have x importance (b) Cornell model (Hulin): satisfaction is a function of outcomes/inputs, the greater the ratio- the more satisfaction, also factors in the labor market and individualidual frames of reference
  • The job characteristics model
  • Work-family balance: a practical concern of high relevance in today’s dual career families; negative influences on work-family balance: electronically enhanced communications (emails, texts etc); prevalence of multiple roles and role conflict
  • What is the link b/t the two domains of satisfy (work and non-work): spillover- predicts a pos correlation, compensatory: predict ne corr; independent forms: predict no correlation
  • Job Attitudes: current trends- (1) in the US the satisfaction level is dropping, pay and promotion opportunities get the lowest ratings (2) cross cultural issues: individualidualistic countries have overall higher job satisfaction, but for warm work groups, collectivism yields higher job satisfaction (3) job attitudes are being fine-tuned to predict relevant conceptual outcomes
  • To predict turnover: org commitment= identifying w/ a particular org and its goals and wishing to stay in the org (1) affective commitment= emotional attachment to org (2) continuance commitment: economic costs of leaving the org (3) normative commitment= obligation in the form of loyalty to stay in org
  • To predict performance: (1) job involvement= degree of personal identification w/ the job where perceived performance is important to self-worth (2) psychological empowerment= belief in the degree of influence ove the job competence, job meaningfulness, and autonomy
  • To predict orginazational citizenship behaviors: percieved org support (POS): the extent to which employees believe the org values their contribution and cares about their well-being; higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved in decision making and supervisors are seen as supportive
  • To predict mood and psychological well-being (1) burnout= strain resulting from prolonged chronic job stressors that exceed coping resources; main components: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and low personal accomplishment (2) work engagement: extent to which employees are passionate about their work and organization; main components: vigor, dedication, and absorbtion

Job Performance

  • Performance criteria= whatever aspects of performance a certain set of stakeholders have identified as critical
    • The criterion problem: performance is initially conceptual; but measures are selected on the basis of availability and prone to errors
    • The criteria are often: (1) poorly defined, (2) out of date, (3) unknown to the employee
  • Types of errors in performance ratings:
    • Distributional errors: ratings means (severity or lenience), ratings variability (range restriction; central tendency)
    • Illusory Halo Effects: correlations b/t rating dimensions are over/under estimated (halo error= performance dimension ratings supposed to be independent, but aren’t in halo error; horns error: neg performance rating due to one dimension)
    • Perceptual errors: similar-to-me (higher ratings if similar); first-impression error (people prone to biases based on first-impression- like to label people immediately)
  • Basic considerations in performance measurement: (1) why- purpose of measurement, (2) what- content of the measurement, (3) when- timing of the measurement, (4) where- fidelity of the setting, (5) how- techniques for measurement
    • “Why”- purpose of the measurement ; drives the entire performance management process: it’s critical (ex: basic research, performance eval/personnel decisions, feedback and personal development, training development & evaluation)
    • “What”- content of measurement; issues: conceptual criterial= verbal statement of the important outcomes (the gold standard); Actual criteria= operationalization of these concepts; in terms of overlap, there can be problems with: contamination & deficiency
    • “When”- timing of measurement; performance is dynamic (changes over time); lagging measures= past behaviors (ie archival data)- may be outdated; repeated measures= multiple measurements ideal for assessing pre-test/post-test outcomes- may be time consuming to keep track of; after event measures= feedback for critical work events
    • “Where”- fidelity of the setting; fidelity= how closely the measurement setting replicates the actual performance situation it is intended to; maximum vs typical performance: these measures have a low correlation & are differentially influenced by cognitive ability and performance; for day-to-day performance in a faced paced, dynamic environ, choose the natural job env; for day to day performance in mundane env you can use a simulator (assembly line production)
    • “how”- measurement techniques: (1) individualidual (2) group/tem (3) organizational
  • Most performance measurement has been conducted at the individualidual level
  • Defining individualidual performance
    • Performance- actions taken by the individualidual; effectiveness- evaluation of the ox; productivity- ratio of effectiveness to the cost
  • Models of individualidual performance
    • Campbells 8 behavior components: (1) job-specific proficiency (2) non job spec proficiency (3) communication (4) effort (5) personal discipline (6) team-work (7) leadership (8) administration
  • Organizational Citizenship behavior (podsakoff)
  • Contextual performance: (1) personal support (2) org support (3) conscientious initiative
  • Adaptive performance= adjusting to changing conditions
  • Intergrated model of work performance: (1) proficiency (2) adaptivity (3) proactivity; this is constructed at the individualidual, team, and org level
  • Counterproductive work behavior (theft, tardiness, etc)
  • Strategies for measuring individual performance
    • Performance appraisals- process involving annual report on employees performance and discussing it during interview
    • Positive aspects of appraisals- feedback goal setting, career management, legal protection
    • Negative aspects of appraisal- inaccurate, biased, stressful, don’t improve performance
  • Other strategies for measuring individual performance
    • Multiple source ratings: 360 degree feedback from self, supervisiors, peers, direct reports, customers, vendors; advantages: flow of info, change in corp culture improved goal setting; Disadvantages: sabatoge (exchange of ratings), lack of training
    • Objective measures: data such as sales, absences, complaints, production; advantages: less prone to rater error; disadvantages: can be overly-linked to outcomes, not behavior
    • Job K Tests, work sample tests: attempt to assess on the job K and behaviors usually through simulations so job fidelity can be low
  • Team performance and its measurement
    • = a combo of process measures (communication, mutual performance monitoring) and outcome measures ( aggregated quantities)
    • Models of team process: transition (mission analysis, goal specif, strategy), action (syst monitoring, coordination), interpersonal (conflict management, affect management)
    • Models of team outcomes
      • Outputs (quantity, quality, customer satisfy)
      • Conseq for members (pay, satisfaction)
      • Increase in ability to performance effectively later (skills gained)
  • Measuring org performance
    • Management by objectives: focus on achievement of org goals
    • Total quality management: focus on minimizing product defects and customer satisfaction
    • Design for sigma six: focus on 3.4 defects per million pieces manufactured; DMAIC: define, measure, analyze, improve, and control
    • Financial data: focus on profits, return on investment
    • Balanced scorecard: focus on financial, customer, internal processes, learning and growth
    • ProMES: focus on goal setting w/ public displays of feedback and contingencies (rewards)
  • Emerging issues that have been under-researched
    • Cross-cultural issues
    • Dysfunctional Performance issues
    • Diverse settings (eg industry) and the appropriate performance management approach

Risk and Safety in the Workplace

  • Risk management= the proactive and strategic process of risk identification and reduction
    • Legal compliance
    • Safety and Health Programs
  • Safety Climate= the pervasive workplace environment that trains and supports safe work behaviors
  • OSHA= Occupational Safety and Health [Administration]: assesses safety climate of orgs
    • Administration (OSH Act of 1970)
  • 2 major tools for risk management: proactive (1) HR audits: Overviews of major HR practices (ex: org chart/communication; currency of job analyses; customer data; goals & mission; recruiting selection); the key is to document practices and flag things that need to be changed, reactive (2) workplace investigations: response to complaints (unlawful behavior; theft/embezzlement, accusations of inappropriate behavior); steps: (1) determine in-house or 3rd party investigator (2) develop a clear strategy; blueprint for data collection and documentation (3) identify individualiduals to be interviewed, (4) prepare and pilot questions, (5) conduct interviews with documentation (6) explain there will be no retaliation against accusers/witnesses, (7) conclude the investigation and take disciplinary action (as needed) consistent with organizational policy
  • Risk assessment: the process used to determine the likelihood that an org will be affected by a risk; ranking its urgency and defining the organizational approach to it
    • Organizational approaches to risks: (1) mitigation: minimizes risk (2) acceptance: manages risk after they occur, (3) avoidance: eliminates risk, (4) transfer: managing risk w/insurance
  • Managing legal compliance risk: Americans with Disabilities Act (1990): Accommodation: if disabled worker can perform essential function w/ an accommodation & the accommodation is reasonable and feasible, then the employer is required to make that accommodation (ex: eliminating or shifting marginal tasks that are challenging to the disabled worker, altering work schedules, providing assistive technology
  • The Drug-Free Workplace Act (1988): Businesses/orgs with federal contracts of $100,000 must ensure a drug-free environment
  • Safety regulation
    • Occupational Safety & Health ACT (OSH Act) (1970): federal agencies that maintain and enforce the act: (1) Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) (2) National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
  • Managing safety
    • Occupational Safety & Health Act (1970): created as a response to unsafe working conditions in the railroad and mining industries; goal is to ensure safe and healthful working conditions
      • Employer responsibilities: (1) minimizes hazards; provide protective equip (2) communicate OSHA and contacts for it (3) Businesses w/ > 11 employees must maintain records of all injuries/accidents (available to employees) (4) W/I 8 hrs of a serious accident, a report must be filed with OSHA
  • Most freq causes of workplace death: overexertion, impact accidents, falls, etc and death: motor vehicles, falls, electrocution, drowning, etc
  • Reasons for OSHA inspections: (1) hazard targeted (55%), (2) accident (20%) (3) follow-ups (25%)
    • Industry sector investigated (1) construction 60% manufacturing 20% other 20%
  • Fair Labor Standards Act (1938): protection for children; ages 16-18 cant be exposed to explosives, radiation or power tools
  • Needlestick Safety and Prevention Act (2000): req safe handling protocols for needles
  • 3 factors relating to health hazards: (1) chemical: asbestos, presticides, battery acid, fumes, (2) Biological: bacteria, fungi, molds, viruses, (3) Physical: ergonomic design, temperature, noise, electricity, vibrations
  • Human factors engineerion (Ergonomics): used to design jobs, machines/tools, & products for safe, efficient, & comfortable human use; developed during WWII to improve design of airplane cockpits; A separate division of APA, emphasizing workplace furniture/equip
  • Approaches to safety design:
    • Motivational approach: emphasizes worker satisfaction through communication and explaining costs/benefits
    • Personnel approach: emphasizes safety through selection and/or training
    • Perceptual-motor approach: emphasizes accident reduction through perceptual-motor skills training
    • Biological approach: emphasizes injury minimization through reduction of fatigue and discomfort
    • Mechanistic approach: emphasizes efficiency through
  • Safety climate & culture: ranges along a continuum from a strong emphasis on safety to disregard for it; req communication at every level; group leader seems to be central to model safe behaviors and establish rewards/punishments
  • Model of factors contributing to workplace accidents: (1) organizational factors: management policies, safety climate, etc (2) physical env: niose, temp, etc. (3) equip design (4) work itself (5) social psychological env (6) worker/coworker
  • Injury and illness prevention programs: elements of plans: clear statement of company policy, support of management, process for including employee voice, identification of responsible parties, clear process for reporting concerns, proper record-keeping as req by OSHA; example plans: hazardous material plans, emergency action plans, fire prevention plans

Stress
  • Stress stats: 1:6 U.S. workers report being really stressed often at work
  • Cost to businesses is estimated at $200 billion/yr
    • > sick days
    • > drug or alcohol abuse
  • Hans Selye- Father of stress
    • Defined stress as the non-specific response of the human body to any demand made on it
    • Identified eustress: positive effects of stress (stress= motivating challenge) vs distress (stress= negative)
    • General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): alarm reaction resistance exhaustion
  • Walter Cannon- described the fight or flight response: short term response to stressor
  • ***Richard Lazarus: identified the concept of cognitive appraisal of stress and daily hassles to stress- related illnesses
  • Friedman & Rosenman: linked to Type A behavior pattern to coronary heart disease
  • Holmes & Rahe: studied major life changes (LCUs) and illness/injury
  • Edmund Jacobson: developed progressive relaxation approaches
  • Everly & Lating 2002: identify 3 key physical elements of the stress response; (1) increased neurotransmitter activity (2) increased neuromuscular arousal (3) increased negative cognitive arousal
    • Everly & Benson’s Disorders of Arousal Model: early trauma can lead to Limbic Hypersensitivity Phenomenon (LHP)
  • Stressor= the perceived demand from the environment; external stimuli and perceptual processes; ex: heat, cold, noise, workload
  • Stress= an internal process in which an individualidual reacts to the environment over time
  • Strain- the psychological, behavioral, and physiological outcomes of the stress reaction
  • NIOSH Model of stressors: fed agency for coordinating work-rel health and safety info: work role stressors, career concerns (job insecurity, lack of advancement opportunity), physical env. Conditions, individualid (personality facors, styles)& situational factors (stress spillover from home), discrimination (unequal satus based on race, gender, age or sexual orientation)
  • Stressors activate the endocrine system and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), producing increased heart rate, respiration, and stress hormones
    • Initially, these changes can improve decision making & physical performance
    • Chronic activation of leads to wear and tear on the body (arteries & heart)
  • Correlates of long-term stress
    • Metabolic syndrome related to diabetes
    • Decreased functioning of the immune system
    • Blood pressure increases
    • Increased BMI
    • Muscoskeletal diseases
  • Behavioral consequences of stress:
    • Performance: Yerkes-Dodson Effect: performance & stress have an inverted U relationship too much or too little stress not good, but in between can improve performance; as arousal increases performance increases but only to a certain point & then it declines
    • Info processing: short-term: positive effects; long term: neg correlation to memory, reaction time, accuracy & task performance
  • Behavioral consequences of violence
    • Most perpetrators of workplace violence have: personality disorders, conflicted relationships, inappropriate reactions to perceived threats to their self-esteem (teach people a lesson)
    • Orgs should have policies to reduce stress & workplace violence; emergency protocols, contacts, etc
  • Demand-control model” Karasek 1979: interaction b/t job demands (workload or intellectual req) and control (autonomy & discretion for using different skills)
    • Assessed with the Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ): role overload & role conflict (demands), skill utilization & job decision (control), depression, job dissatisfaction & sleep problems (health consequences)
    • High strain= high demands & low control; Low strain job= high control low psychological demands; educator= high demands, high control
    • Sociocognitive Model
      • Lazarus & Folkman 1984: emphasizes the ongoing interaction b/t the person and the environment; (1) primary appraisal= identification of potential stressors are threatening (2) secondary appraisal= assessment of coping resources
      • Coping= thoughts and behaviors used to manage demands appraised as stressors
      • 2 main typed of coping strategies (1) problem-focused coping: managing or altering the problem causing stress (2) emotion-focused coping: reducing the emotional response to the problem
  • Burnout Model (Maslach & Jackson 1981): Burnout: extreme state of psychological strain resulting from prolonged response to chronic job stressors
    • 3 main components: (1) emotional exhaustion (2) depersonalization (3) low personal accomplishment
  • The Role Stress Model (Illgen & Hollenback 1991): types of role stressors: (1) role conflict (2) role ambiguity (3) role overload (sub-type of role conflict)
  • Cybernetic Model: self-regulation is good in the short term because it keeps you in the motivational loop, but if your short term motivational processes aren’t moving you toward your long-term goals then you may have strain related outcomes
  • Person-Environment Fit Model: as long as you fit with the culture, you aren’t stressed.
  • The Challenge-Hindrance Model: stressors are first appraised as either challenges or hassles; activates expectancy theory concepts
  • Individualidual Differences: moderators
    • Type A personality: ambitiousness, impatience, easily aroused hostility & time urgency; achievemen oriented, more punctual, & high achievers; hostility/irritability, increased risk of heart disease & other bad health outcomes
    • Locus of control (LOC): belief of individualids that what happens to them is under their control
    • Hardiness: set of personality characteristics that provide resistance to stress
    • Self-esteem: positive sself-worth is an important influence on coping
  • Stress management: (1) get rid of stressors (2) help people w/ responses to stressors (nutrition & relaxation programs) (3) employee assistance programs

Leadership
  • Definitions of Leadership
    • Almost all definitions are Anglo-Saxon
    • 1.) the influential increment over and above mechanical compliance
    • 2.) process of influencing the activities of an organized group toward goal achievement
    • 3.) The ability of an individualid to motivate others to forgo self-interest for a collective vision
    • 4.) A process of social influence that leads followers to transcend self-interest toward the achievement
  • Management: use of authority inherent in designated formal rank to obtain compliance
  • Bases of power: Position
    • Legitimate power: based on others recognizing and accepting authority
    • Reward power: based on controlling the rewards others receive
    • Coercive power: based on controlling punishment
    • Information power: based on access to valuable data or K
  • Bases of power: personal
    • Rational persuasion: based on logical arguments and factual evidence they provide to support their argument
    • Expert power: based on others recognizing their expert K on a topic
    • Referent power: based on the admiration of others
    • Charisma: based on an engaging and magnetic personality
  • Theories of leadership
    • 1. Trait approach: effective leaders are born that way
      • “great man approach”
      • Very few consisten relationships b/t traits/leader effectiveness were found
      • Big 5 model
    • 2. Behavioral approach: effective leadership is about actions
      • Focuses on what leaders do
      • Advantage: leaders can be trained
      • 2 critical leadership behaviors: (1) consideration (concern for people)- correlated w/work rel attitudes & (2) initiating structure ( concern for getting the job done)
    • 3. Contingency approach: effective leaders vary by the situation
      • Proposed to take into account the role of the situation
      • 3 theories: (1) situational leadership theory: focuses on follower readiness (extent to which they have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task) (2) Path-goal theory: leaders provide the followers with info, support, and resources to help them achieve their goals; leaders help clarify the path to workers goals; leaders can display multiple leadership types (a) achievement oriented: focused on challenging goals and performance (b) instrumental: focused on providing specific guidance (c) supportive: focused on estabilishing good relations w/ subordinates (d) participative: focused on consultation w/ subordinates (3) LPC theory: the most important personal characteristic is the leaders esteem for his/her least preferred coworker; low LPC leaders view this person negatively b/c they are so concerned with task performance; high LPC leaders view this person positively and are more concerned w/ establishing good relations; 3 factors determine situational favorability: (1) the degree of structure in the task being performed (2) the leaders position power (3) the leaders relations with group members; situational control is high when the leader has positive relations w/ group members, a highly structured task and has position power
    • 4. Inspirational approaches: effective leaders are good managers and can also transform followers
    • Leader –Member exchange theory (LMX): leaders adopt different behaviors w/ individualidual subordinates; in group members vs outgroup members; relative to out-group, ingroup receives: more attention, better appraisal ratings, faster promotion
    • Charismatic Leadership: means “gift” in Greek- req a lot of commitment and energy; 4 components: (1) unconventional behavior (2) Vision: idealized way of doing things that is above the status quo; make vision seem appealing, explain how to get there, (3) Sensitivity to followers: sensitivity to their needs- that they can understand the vision, (4) personal risk: money reputation, time, etc.- modeling the risk taking
      • Attributions: (1) sensitivity to follower needs and environmental constraints (2) formulation of an idealized vision that is better than the status quo; articulation of it (3) use of innovative and unconventional means emphasizing personal power
  • Transformational leadership: behavior of inspirational political leaders whoi transform followers by appealing to noble motives; built on top of transactional leadership
    • General characteristics: (1) charisma (2) self-confidence (3) vision (4) environmental sensitivity + figure out how to get people on the path to their goals
    • Important to differentiate b/t transactional and transformational: (1) transactional: rules based; contingent reward, management by exception, Laissez-Faire (2) Transformational: leadership process based; idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualidualized consideration
  • Authentic leadership: leaders who are clear about their beliefs and values and reflect those in policies; focus on ethics
  • Integrative leadership: focusing on using an appropriate style that emphasizes win-win for people and org
  • Adaptive/flexible leadership: focusing on analyzing the situation w/ emotional and opportunistic intelligence
  • GLOBE- global leadership & organizational behavior effectiveness: cross-cultural study; universally accepted: integrity (trustworthy, just, hones), charismatic, team oriented, excellence oriented; universally rejected: loner, non-cooperative, ruthless, non0explicit, irritable, dictatorial
Motivation
  • Motivation: an internal process of goal directed behavior; function of cognitions, intentions, emotions, intrinsic and extrinsic rewards; characterized by 3 features
    • (1) Direction: the choice of behavior made
    • (2) Arousal/intensity: the energy behind our actions
    • (3) Persistence: an individualidual’s willingness to continue to exert effort until a goal is met
  • Motivation is not the same as performance, performance is a function of motivation, ability and the environment (luck, opportunity, team climate)
  • Intrinsic motivation: motivational processes driven by task enjoyment factors (psychological flow, job redesign, self-determination theory)
    • The optimal intrinsic motivational state: has a balance b/t skills and challenges of the activity, presence of clear purpose and clear feedback, complete concentration and lack of self-consciousness, distortion of time, major feelings of enjoyment
      • Psychological flow: measures via interviews or with a self-report survey: to what degree were you enjoying what you were doing?, how involved were you with the task?
  • Extrinsic motivation: motivational processes driven by external reward factors (reinforcement theory, goal setting theory, expectancy theory, justice theories/equity theory)
  • Job design approaches; job design: setting up the work that needs to be done to maximize its motivational potential
    • (1) Job rotation (cross-training): shifting an employee from one task to another with similar skill requirements
    • (2) Job enrichment: increasing the degree to which an employee controls the planning, execution and evaluation of the work (task teams, client relationships)
  • Job design The Characteristic Model: 5 core job dimensions:
    • (1) feedback, (2) autonomy, (3), skill variety, (4) task identity, (5) task significance (will anything change as a function of doing something?)
  • Self-determination Theory (Deci) aka Cognitive Evaluation Theory: there are 2 higher order needs for competence and need for self-determination; anything that decreases competence or control will undermine motivation
    • Implications for orgs: (1) things that decrease intrinsic motivation: threats, deadlines, directives, competition, negative feedback, performance-contingent rewards; (2) things that increase intrinsic motivation: recognition, team-work, personal choice, positive feedback
  • Goal-setting Theory: specific and difficult goals , with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance
    • Goals: focus and direct attention: energize the person to work harder, difficulty increases persistence, force people to be more effective and efficient
    • Results: task performance is influenced by goal commitment and goal difficulty- performance is highest when people are highly committed to the goal and people who aren’t committed to a goal performance poorly on tasks at all levels of difficulty
    • Moderators of goal-performance relationship: goal commitment, task characteristics, feedback, ability/expertise, culture (best match is for performance-oriented individualidualistic cultures)
    • Management by Objectives: term for applications of goal setting theory at the org level, which converts overall org objectives into specific objectives for work units and individualiduals
  • Social cognitive theory: based on self-efficacy = belief in capability of performing a task
    • Higher efficacy is related to: greater confidence, greater persistence, and performance
    • SCT includes both proximal and distal goals and self-regulation to reach these
  • Practical ways to increase self-efficacy: enactive mastery (practicing experience with success), vicarious persuasion (watching someone else succeed believe you can do it), verbal persuasion (what co-workers/managers say believe you can do it), physical arousal
  • Reinforcement Theory: Behavior will depend on 3 elements
    • (1) Stimulus (2) response (3) reward
    • Org behavior management the term for applications of reinforcement theory
  • Justice and Equity Theory: employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of relevant others
    • When ratios are equal: a state of equity exists- there is no tension as the situation is considered fair (the left picture)
    • If a person feels underpaid or overpaid, a tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into equity (the right picture)
  • Vroom’s Expectancy Theory: motivation for a task depends on 3 mental evaluations performance
    • (1) expectancy: beliefs about the link b/t effort and performance; my effort & performance level
    • (2) instrumentality: beliefs about the link b/t performance and an outcome; my performance my rewards
    • (3) valance: how much a person wants the outcome; value of rewards

Employee Rights and Responsibilities
  • Common law doctrine= the results of legal decisions by judges over decades, that have implications for employee relations
    • Employment at will: either party may terminate employment for any cause
      • Exceptions: Contracts, discrimination, labor unions, fraudulent mis-representation
      • Promissory estoppel= an employer entices an employee away with promises but does not follow through
    • Respondeat superior: let the master answer in latin; an employer can be held legally responsible for actions of its employees on the worksite (due to negligence or recklessness)
      • Ie sexual harassment, managerial promises during hiring, work-related accidents
    • Constructive discharge: an employer tries to fire an employee by making working conditions so unbearable as to force the person to leave (ex proof of intent like a memo or humiliation)
    • Defamation= communication (like slander) so as to damage a person’s reputation and interfere with their working relations
      • Unintended effect: no reference-check info is provided
    • Employee rights: due process; employment actions are taken in accordance with established procedures
    • Employee responsibilities:
      • Duty of diligence: to act with reasonable care and skill
      • Duty of obedience: to follow the employer’s reasonable and legal policies
      • Duty of loyalty: to act in the best interest of the employer
  • Sexual Harassment: unwelcomed sexually related actions that interfere with work performance; the equal employment opportunities commission describes 3 forms of sexual harassment
    • Unwelcomed sexual advances: requests for sexual favors, or conduct of a sexual nature
    • Submissive to or rejection : of any conduct by an individualid using such acts as the basis for employment
    • Conduct that interferes with the individualiduals woek performance by creating a hostile or offensive work environment
  • Guidelines to prevent sexual harassment by EEOC
    • Develop anti-harassment policies, provide training, communicate a clear process for reporting, assurances of confidentiality and protection against retaliation
  • Glass Ceiling: unseen limits for minorities into the senior ranks of management
    • 3 bariers: (1) societal bariers: limited education, various biases, (2) internal structure barriers= culture, special assignments, (3) governmental barriers: poor legislation and data-collection
    • Glass ceiling Act: an amendment to the Civil Rights Act (1991) that establishes EEOC audits of diversity composition at all levels
  • Veteran’s Employment Protection
    • USERRA= the Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment Rights Act 1994
      • Protects the rights of reservists called to active duty
      • Enforced through the Dept of Labor
        • All employers must comply, employees must give notice, must grant a leave up to 5 yrs, must immediately reinstate employee upon return
  • Climate= more specific, how we do things; culture= more global; shared personalities
  • Employee relations:
    • Organizing climate and culture
      • Climate: how people feel about the org per topic
      • Culture: based on shared values and beliefs, the orgs personality
      • Tools to raise employee involvement in work process: autonomy……
  • Improving culture by communicating with employees:
    • Open-door
    • Management by walking around
    • Dept staff meetings
    • Brown-bag lunches
    • Intanet/emails
  • Improving culture by soliciting upward communication
    • Employee surveys
    • Focus groups
    • Skip-level interviews
  • Improving culture by offering employee-friendly policies
    • Telecommuting, or partial telecommuting, flextime (core hours), compressed workweeks (4/40), part-time opportunities, job sharing
  • Negotiation: a process in which two or more parties attempt to agree on an exchange rate for goods/services or how to resolve a conflict
    • Target point: what each party is trying for
    • Settlement range: the overlap for each party
    • Impasse: a breakdown of negotiation
  • Dispute resolution: 3rd party roles
    • Alternative dispute resolution: trying to resolve disputes without litigation
      • Conciliator: a trusted 3rd party who provides an informal communication link aimed to smooth conflict
      • Arbitrator: a 3rd party to a negotiation who has the authority to dictate an agreement (decision may be legally binding)
      • Mediator: a neutral 3rd party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning and persuasion
        • Intro meeting: rules establishment
        • Fact-finding
        • Options and negotiations
  • Labor Union Process
    • Knights of labor (1869) advocated for an 8hr workday when 12hrs was the norm
      • Sherman Antitrust Act: initially enacted to control businesses monopolies was used to end the strike against the American Railway Union (1894)
      • Clayton Act (1914): limited the use of injunctions to break strikes; exemted unions from the Sherman Act
      • National Labor Relations Act (1935): part of new deal, officially allows employees to organize and bargain collectively
      • Labor Management Relations Act (1947): prohibits closed shops; provides unions only with consent of the majority of employees
  • The organizing process:
    • Authorization cards: the process will continue if 30% of eligible employees sign cards
    • Demand for recognition: officially approaching the employer
    • Petitioning the NLRB: informing of an election
    • Hearing issues: NLRB schedules conferences
    • Campaign: tactics
    • Election: neither the employer nor union can be near the polling area
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